Pedestrians

Summary

Walking is a basic human activity, and almost everyone is a pedestrian at one time or another. The 2001 edition of the AASHTO Green Book states that “pedestrians are a part of every roadway environment, and attention should be paid to their presence in rural as well as urban areas“ (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001). It goes on to state, “. . . pedestrians are the lifeblood of our urban areas, especially in the downtown and other retail areas” (p. 96).

Even though pedestrians are legitimate roadway users, they are frequently overlooked in the quest to build more sophisticated transportation systems. Whether building new infrastructure or renovating existing facilities, it should be assumed that people will walk, and plans should be made to accommodate pedestrians. Where people aren’t walking, it is often because they are prevented or discouraged from doing so. Either the infrastructure is insufficient, has serious gaps, or there are safety hazards. Aesthetics (e.g., pleasant walking environments that include trees, landscaping, displays of public art, etc.) and destinations within walking distances also play important roles in determining levels of walking.

Safety concerns can significantly influence a person’s decision to walk or use other modes of transportation. However, understanding pedestrian safety issues has proven difficult for engineers and planners. Traditionally, safety problems have been identified by analyzing police crash reports, and improvements have been made only after crashes have occurred. Such methods are not sufficient to fully understand and effectively address pedestrian safety concerns. Waiting for crashes to warrant actions carries a high price, as pedestrian crashes tend to be severe. Crash reports do not provide a complete picture of perceived safe or unsafe pedestrian environments and hence do not offer guidance on effective, proactive measures to promote a safe pedestrian environment.

Recent experience and research has shown that a comprehensive approach is most effective in creating safer walking environments. Many pedestrian safety problems cannot be solved simply by addressing one of the “three Es” (engineering, education, enforcement) in isolation. Engineers, law enforcement, designers, planners, educators, and citizens should all play a role in identifying and implementing effective countermeasures for improving pedestrian safety.

There is also a need to take proactive measures to address pedestrian safety issues. For example, planners can host interactive public workshops, surveying pedestrians and drivers, and talking with police and traffic engineers to identify safety problems in an area before crashes occur. Pedestrian safety, both actual and perceived, and the provision of appropriate pedestrian infrastructure will influence how many people will walk and the number and type of pedestrian crashes that will occur.

Finally, in making any decisions about program or countermeasure implementation, consideration should be given to the special characteristics and needs of the population being targeted. This is especially true with respect to education or enforcement interventions, but even road signs and pavement markings can be affected. People of different cultures and ethnic backgrounds, non-English speaking populations, those with physical impairments, and even children and the elderly may necessitate modifications to the countermeasure to ensure that it reaches its intended target audience and has the desired safety benefits.

In recent years, walking has received increased attention as a mode of transportation that should be encouraged for a variety of reasons. On April 22, 1994, the U.S. Department of Transportation presented its National Bicycling and Walking Study (NBWS) to the U.S. Congress, which, in addition to documenting the state of bicycling and walking in the United States, contained two overall goals:

Double the percentage of total trips made by bicycling and walking in the United States from 7.9 percent to 15.8 percent of all travel trips¹ and simultaneously reduce by 10 percent the number of bicyclists and pedestrians killed or injured in traffic crashes. (Zegeer, 1994)

Congress adopted the Study’s goals, effectively creating a directive to Federal transportation agencies to implement the Study’s nine-point Federal Action Plan with 60 specific action items for the Office of the Secretary, Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and Federal Transit Administration; and a five-point State and Local Action Plan with a range of suggested activities for state and local agencies. In addition, Congress, prior to adoption of the NBWS, had vastly increased the amount of Federal funding available for pedestrian projects with the adoption of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991, and, later, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) (1998). Spending of federal transportation funds on these two modes rose from $6 million in 1990 to more than $238 million in 1997.

While the number of annual pedestrian fatalities due to traffic accidents had generally decreased across the United States over the latter part of the 1990s (about 13 percent overall from 1992 to 2002, per NHTSA Web site), that trend seems to have changed somewhat over the early years of the new millennium (see Exhibit I-1). There were 71,000 pedestrians injured in traffic crashes in 2002 (per NHTSA Web site).

The number of conflicts and fatalities remains high in many urban areas and for specific segments of the population. In addition, results of travel surveys suggest that the observed drop in pedestrian fatalities in recent years may simply reflect reduced exposure rather than any gains in pedestrian safety.

The need to reduce pedestrian deaths and injuries (see Exhibit I-2), even in the face of ongoing efforts to increase levels of walking, continues to be an important goal for the engineering profession. Specific groups that do not or cannot drive primarily depend on walking for transportation, including children, the elderly, and low-income populations. These groups are particularly in need of a safe walking environment to help lower their risk of injury and death.

EXHIBIT I-1
Pedestrians Killed in Crashes with Vehicles, 1994-2002 (Source: NHTSA Web site)

EXHIBIT I-2
Pedestrians Injured or Killed in Crashes with Vehicles, 1990-2000 (Source: NHTSA Web site)
Note: A significant number of pedestrian injury crashes requiring emergency room treatment but not reported to police agencies are not included in these reported fatalities and injuries.

The U.S. Census is the most complete information on the percent of journey-to-work trips made by walking. For the 2000 U.S. Census, the percentage of journeys to work by foot was 2.9 percent, or 3.8 million workers 16 years and over (Reschovsky, 2004). This is lower than the 1990 Census data, which showed 3.9 percent of workers 16 years and over, or 4.5 million people, walking to work.

The Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS), which measures travel of all kinds at the national level, also indicates there has been a decrease in the percent of trips made by walking. In 1995, approximately 20 billion trips, or 5.4 percent of all trips, were made by walking (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1995). These numbers compare to 18 billion walking trips, or 7.2 percent of all trips, in 1990 (Hu and Young, 1992, 1993).² While the absolute number of walking trips increased by about 11 percent between the 1990 and 1995 NPTS surveys, it was far less than the increase in trips by private auto, creating a reduction in the percentage of total trips by walking. If walking trips had increased at the same rate as private auto trips, the observed reduction in pedestrian fatalities would likely have been much smaller. During the 5-year time period covered by the two NPTS surveys, pedestrian fatalities decreased by 13.9 percent (from 6,482 to 5,584). Engineering improvements coupled with enhanced safe behavior by pedestrians and motorists are needed to further reduce pedestrian fatalities.

The following is a list of requests (objectives) that transportation professionals are likely to face when working to provide pedestrian safety and mobility:

• Reduce the speed of motor vehicles
• Improve sight distance and visibility for motor vehicles and pedestrians
• Reduce pedestrian exposure to vehicular traffic
• Improve pedestrian access and mobility
• Improve pedestrian and motorist safety awareness and behavior

Each of these objectives can be accomplished through a variety of the 16 individual strategies (treatments) presented in Exhibit I-3. Most strategies will work best when used at multiple locations and in combination with other treatments.

In addition, many of the strategies (treatments) will accomplish two or more objectives. The key is to make sure that the right treatments are chosen to accomplish the desired effect.

EXHIBIT I-3
Emphasis Area Objectives and Strategies

Objectives	Strategies
9.1 A Reduce Pedestrian Exposure to Vehicular Traffic	9.1 A1 Provide Sidewalks/Walkways and Curb Ramps 9.1 A2 Install or Upgrade Traffic and Pedestrian Signals 9.1 A3 Construct Pedestrian Refuge Islands and Raised Medians 9.1 A4 Provide Vehicle Restriction/Diversion Measures 9.1 A5 Install Overpasses/Underpasses
9.1 B Improve Sight Distance and/or Visibility Between Motor Vehicles and Pedestrians	9.1 B1 Provide Crosswalk Enhancements 9.1 B2 Implement Lighting/Crosswalk Illumination Measures 9.1 B3 Eliminate Screening by Physical Objects 9.1 B4 Signals to Alert Motorists That Pedestrians Are Crossing 9.1 B5 Improve Reflectorization/Conspicuity of Pedestrians
9.1 C Reduce Vehicle Speed	9.1 C1 Implement Road Narrowing Measures 9.1 C2 Install Traffic Calming—Road Sections 9.1 C3 Install Traffic Calming—Intersections 9.1 C4 Provide School Route Improvements
9.1 D Improve Pedestrian and Motorist Safety Awareness and Behavior	9.1 D1 Provide Education, Outreach, and Training 9.1 D2 Implement Enforcement Campaigns

¹ The National Bicycling and Walking Study (NBWS) target of doubling the percentage of trips made by bicycling and walking from 7.9 percent to 15.8 percent was based on numbers collected in the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS). In 1990, a total of 18 billion walking trips and 1.7 billion bicycling trips were made representing 7.2 percent and 0.7 percent respectively of all trips counted by the study.

² The NPTS survey methodology changed between 1990 and 1995 from a telephone survey to a travel-diary survey. This resulted in an increase in the reported number of trips overall in 1995, a change which does affect the accuracy of comparisons between different year NPTSs.